Hello, to everyone reading this.
My name is Ted Rogers. I'm a Senior at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. I major in Journalism, with minors in Biology and History.
To finish my career as a student with honors, I needed to come up with a Capstone Project. This is the result. I combined my training as a journalist with my interests in biology and history to create a multimedia tour of the Amherst College of Natural History.
This is the culmination of 9 months of work. It's my hope that you enjoy viewing this as much as I did making it. The world has so much to tell us.
Let's begin.
Thursday, May 6, 2010
Credits
I would like to mention everyone that helped me complete this project:
First, I would like to thank the Amherst College Museum of Natural History for allowing me to create this tour.
Thank you, to all of the professors that helped me. Without their helpful advice, answers, and interviews, I would not have been able to make this project.
Professor Tom Burbine, UMass Amherst, Astronomy
Professor Jeff Podos, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Alan Richmond, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Cristina Cox-Fernandez, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Duncan Irshick, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Mark Leckie, UMass Amherst, Geology
Professor Ed Belt, Amherst College, Geology
I would like to thank Kate Wellspring, the museum's Collections Manager, for being my museum contact and helping me with questions on Anthropology.
I am especially grateful to my project chairs. Their help was essential in creating the format of this project. Thank you.
Professor Margery Coombs, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Stephen Fox, UMass Amherst, Journalism
First, I would like to thank the Amherst College Museum of Natural History for allowing me to create this tour.
Thank you, to all of the professors that helped me. Without their helpful advice, answers, and interviews, I would not have been able to make this project.
Professor Tom Burbine, UMass Amherst, Astronomy
Professor Jeff Podos, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Alan Richmond, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Cristina Cox-Fernandez, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Duncan Irshick, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Mark Leckie, UMass Amherst, Geology
Professor Ed Belt, Amherst College, Geology
I would like to thank Kate Wellspring, the museum's Collections Manager, for being my museum contact and helping me with questions on Anthropology.
I am especially grateful to my project chairs. Their help was essential in creating the format of this project. Thank you.
Professor Margery Coombs, UMass Amherst, Biology
Professor Stephen Fox, UMass Amherst, Journalism
Photography and Image Credits
I have used supplemental images in addition to my own photography while creating this project. Reasons for this include time constraints, unavailability of evidence I could photograph, and cases where certain images would give a better explanation to a situation than my own narration. Unless otherwise noted, pictures are filed under Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.
All supplemental images were taken from the Creative Commons, a non-profit website that allows images to be taken and used within copyright laws.
Credits follow in order of appearance:
Elements:
Public Domain picture of Hydrogen Atom.
Periodic Table Image courtesy of Sch0013r.
Meteorites:
Illustration of meteor shower courtesy of E. Weiß, copyright expired.
All other supplemental images courtesy of NASA, public domain.
Horse Evolution
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Illustrations of Prehistoric Horses by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Grazing Horse photograph courtesy of Montanabw .
Wall of Mammals:
Illustration of Apatosaurus by Charles R. Knight, copyright expired.
All other illustrations by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Ice Age America:
Illustration of Ice Age by Mauricio Anton, under Attribution 2.5 Generic
Rock Art photograph is public domain.
Ice Age Earth image by Ittiz.
Megaloceros:
Cave painting is public domain.
Peacock photo courtesy of Marlith .
Deer photograph courtesy of United States Fish and Wildlife Services, public domain.
Smilodon:
Both illustrations by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
The Fishes:
Pikaia fossil photograph courtesy of Jstuby, public domain.
Lamprey feeding photograph courtesy of United States Geological Survey, public domain.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Jaw Image courtesy of Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation.
Shark illustration by Dmitry Bogdanov.
Shark Photograph courtesy of Mila Zinkova.
Acanthodian illustration courtesy of Stanton F. Fink.
Lobed Fin Fish illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Tiktaalik illustration by Nobu Tamura.
South American Mammals:
South America photograph by NASA, public domain.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Ground Sloth photograph is public domain.
Moetherium illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Pyrotherium illustration by Stanton F Fink.
Thylacosmilus illustration by Stanton F Fink.
American Interchange Map is public domain.
Amphibians:
Amphibian illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Frog Spawning by Salim Fadhley.
Tadpole 1 by ViridFlavus.
Tadpole 2 by Liquid Ghoul.
Tadpole 3 by ViridFlavus.
Amniotes:
Dinosaur egg by Pavel Riha.
Tortoise hatchling by Mayer Richard.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Aquatic Reptiles:
Apatosaurus illustration by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
Plesiosaur illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
rhamphorhynchus illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Hoatzin illustration by J Arthur Thompson, copyright expired.
Bat illustration by Gustav Mutzel, copyright expired.
Dolphin courtesy of NOAA, public domain.
Mystriosuchus illustration by Edward Riou, copyright expired.
Crocodile photo courtesy of Rlevse.
Evolutionary Milestones:
Ammonite illustration by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
Dunkleosteus courtesy of Dmitry Bogdanov.
Acanthodian illustration courtesy of Stanton F. Fink.
Lobed Fin Fish illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Tiktaalik illustration by Nobu Tamura.
Amphibian illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Human evolution:
Yams courtesy of C Ford.
Meat courtesy of Robin.
Skeleton drawing is public domain.
Brain courtesy of gaetan lee.
Fossil Environments
Carboniferous era illustration is public domain.
Coal mine image is courtesy of the Bureau of Land Management, public domain
Prehistoric Map created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Oil gusher is public domain, copyright expired.
History of the Pioneer Valley:
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Pikaia fossil photograph courtesy of Jstuby, public domain.
Himalaya photograph courtesy of Nichalp.
Rifting diagram courtesy of NASA, public domain.
Atlantic Ocean courtesy of the CIA, public domain.
Ice Age Earth image by Ittiz
Arsenates, Tungstates, and Molybdates:
Bangladesh map courtesy of the CIA, public domain.
All other photography was taken by me.
Now, let's move on to the tour.
All supplemental images were taken from the Creative Commons, a non-profit website that allows images to be taken and used within copyright laws.
Credits follow in order of appearance:
Elements:
Public Domain picture of Hydrogen Atom.
Periodic Table Image courtesy of Sch0013r.
Meteorites:
Illustration of meteor shower courtesy of E. Weiß, copyright expired.
All other supplemental images courtesy of NASA, public domain.
Horse Evolution
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Illustrations of Prehistoric Horses by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Grazing Horse photograph courtesy of Montanabw .
Wall of Mammals:
Illustration of Apatosaurus by Charles R. Knight, copyright expired.
All other illustrations by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Ice Age America:
Illustration of Ice Age by Mauricio Anton, under Attribution 2.5 Generic
Rock Art photograph is public domain.
Ice Age Earth image by Ittiz.
Megaloceros:
Cave painting is public domain.
Peacock photo courtesy of Marlith .
Deer photograph courtesy of United States Fish and Wildlife Services, public domain.
Smilodon:
Both illustrations by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
The Fishes:
Pikaia fossil photograph courtesy of Jstuby, public domain.
Lamprey feeding photograph courtesy of United States Geological Survey, public domain.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Jaw Image courtesy of Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation.
Shark illustration by Dmitry Bogdanov.
Shark Photograph courtesy of Mila Zinkova.
Acanthodian illustration courtesy of Stanton F. Fink.
Lobed Fin Fish illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Tiktaalik illustration by Nobu Tamura.
South American Mammals:
South America photograph by NASA, public domain.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Ground Sloth photograph is public domain.
Moetherium illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Pyrotherium illustration by Stanton F Fink.
Thylacosmilus illustration by Stanton F Fink.
American Interchange Map is public domain.
Amphibians:
Amphibian illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Frog Spawning by Salim Fadhley.
Tadpole 1 by ViridFlavus.
Tadpole 2 by Liquid Ghoul.
Tadpole 3 by ViridFlavus.
Amniotes:
Dinosaur egg by Pavel Riha.
Tortoise hatchling by Mayer Richard.
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Aquatic Reptiles:
Apatosaurus illustration by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
Plesiosaur illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
rhamphorhynchus illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Hoatzin illustration by J Arthur Thompson, copyright expired.
Bat illustration by Gustav Mutzel, copyright expired.
Dolphin courtesy of NOAA, public domain.
Mystriosuchus illustration by Edward Riou, copyright expired.
Crocodile photo courtesy of Rlevse.
Evolutionary Milestones:
Ammonite illustration by Charles R Knight, copyright expired.
Dunkleosteus courtesy of Dmitry Bogdanov.
Acanthodian illustration courtesy of Stanton F. Fink.
Lobed Fin Fish illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Tiktaalik illustration by Nobu Tamura.
Amphibian illustration by Heinrich Harder, copyright expired.
Human evolution:
Yams courtesy of C Ford.
Meat courtesy of Robin.
Skeleton drawing is public domain.
Brain courtesy of gaetan lee.
Fossil Environments
Carboniferous era illustration is public domain.
Coal mine image is courtesy of the Bureau of Land Management, public domain
Prehistoric Map created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Oil gusher is public domain, copyright expired.
History of the Pioneer Valley:
Prehistoric Maps created by Dr. Ron Blakey.
Pikaia fossil photograph courtesy of Jstuby, public domain.
Himalaya photograph courtesy of Nichalp.
Rifting diagram courtesy of NASA, public domain.
Atlantic Ocean courtesy of the CIA, public domain.
Ice Age Earth image by Ittiz
Arsenates, Tungstates, and Molybdates:
Bangladesh map courtesy of the CIA, public domain.
All other photography was taken by me.
Now, let's move on to the tour.
Welcome to the Amherst College Museum of Natural History
Best estimates say the Earth is about four and a half billion years old. In the time since its creation, Earth has been pounded by meteors, seen mountains rise and crumble, had oceans rise and fall. Earth has nurtured life, everything from bacteria to dinosaurs to you and me.
This museum is a tribute to all of that. We begin as you walk through the main entrance, starting at the first floor mineral collection.
Wednesday, May 5, 2010
Introduction and Local Minerals
Welcome to the first exhibit. Here, you can see vast collections of minerals. From the oddly shaped to the brightly colored, these minerals are what make up the earth.
Introduction and Minerals of the Pioneer Valley from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Minerals can be made in a lot of ways. Crystals are made when like molecules overlap each other, creating distinctive shapes and colors. Gems are any mineral that are valuable by human standards. Some of the minerals you see here were created over millions of years through geological processes such as volcanoes and glaciers.
It would be a mistake to say that these collections are "just a bunch of rocks." These minerals are clues. If you care enough to look closely, these minerals can show you new meaning of history, you and me, and the world itself.
Elements
Welcome to the world of elements.
For those needed a refresher course in chemistry: Sometimes, atoms and molecules are charged, either negatively or positively. These are called ions or radicals. Ions usually try to get to a neutral charge. To do this, they will bond with an oppositely charged atom or molecule.
For example: Two oxygen atoms (each with a -2 charge) will likely bond with a single carbon atom (+4). This makes a neutrally charged Carbon Dioxide molecule.
As to where atoms come from: We don't know all that much about the Big Bang (The universes' abrupt expansion) but it's theorized that every last mote and particle in existence was made from it, mostly in the form of hydrogen, with some helium and a touch of lithium thrown in. The Hydrogen formed the first stars. These first stars burned out quickly, and died in tremendous explosions called supernovae.
These explosions are so powerful that they can fuse individual atoms together to form larger atoms, creating elements like gold, uranium, and platinum. In short, every molecule around you was made in a star's explosive end.
For those needed a refresher course in chemistry: Sometimes, atoms and molecules are charged, either negatively or positively. These are called ions or radicals. Ions usually try to get to a neutral charge. To do this, they will bond with an oppositely charged atom or molecule.
For example: Two oxygen atoms (each with a -2 charge) will likely bond with a single carbon atom (+4). This makes a neutrally charged Carbon Dioxide molecule.
Elements from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
As to where atoms come from: We don't know all that much about the Big Bang (The universes' abrupt expansion) but it's theorized that every last mote and particle in existence was made from it, mostly in the form of hydrogen, with some helium and a touch of lithium thrown in. The Hydrogen formed the first stars. These first stars burned out quickly, and died in tremendous explosions called supernovae.
These explosions are so powerful that they can fuse individual atoms together to form larger atoms, creating elements like gold, uranium, and platinum. In short, every molecule around you was made in a star's explosive end.
Sulfides and Arsenides
This is a collection of sulfide and arsenide minerals.
Arsenic is a deadly poison, something that known since ancient times. This has not stopped the element from being used in pigments, insecticides, and Victorian makeup. Thanks to more stringent regulations, this is something we don't need to worry about as much today.
Sulfides and Arsenides from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Arsenic is a deadly poison, something that known since ancient times. This has not stopped the element from being used in pigments, insecticides, and Victorian makeup. Thanks to more stringent regulations, this is something we don't need to worry about as much today.
Oxides
This is the Oxide collection.
We owe the earth's vast Iron deposits to Oxygen's appearance 3.7 billion years ago. Oxygen was produced by tiny blue-green bacteria, which converted Earth's early Carbon Dioxide atmosphere to Oxygen as part of their respiration process- something that plants still do today.
Free iron atoms in the oceans came into oxygen and rusted, falling to the bottom of the sea. As the continents drifted, these iron deposits came onto dry land.
These bacteria formed huge, reef like communities, called stromatolites. You can see fossilized stromatolite colonies on the second floor of the museum.
Oxides from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
We owe the earth's vast Iron deposits to Oxygen's appearance 3.7 billion years ago. Oxygen was produced by tiny blue-green bacteria, which converted Earth's early Carbon Dioxide atmosphere to Oxygen as part of their respiration process- something that plants still do today.
Free iron atoms in the oceans came into oxygen and rusted, falling to the bottom of the sea. As the continents drifted, these iron deposits came onto dry land.
These bacteria formed huge, reef like communities, called stromatolites. You can see fossilized stromatolite colonies on the second floor of the museum.
Meteorites
After you've finished looking through the mineral section, take a look at the hutch to the far right.
This is the Amherst College meteorite collection. These hunks of rock and metal are ancient. They were formed by the same cloud of gas and dust that formed everything in our solar system.
This is the Amherst College meteorite collection. These hunks of rock and metal are ancient. They were formed by the same cloud of gas and dust that formed everything in our solar system.Meteors from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Horses
If you look out the door behind you, you can see a horse skeleton staring back. It took nearly 50 million years for the horse to evolve from the size of a cat to where it stands today.
Horse Evolution from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Wall of Mammals
To the left of the earliest horse, you'll see a wall of mammal skeletons reaching up to the ceiling.
These bones are from the Cenozoic era- All the time since the dinosaurs went extinct. Without giant reptiles to dominate the landscape, mammals had a chance to undergo rapid diversification.
The birds behind you represent a startling trend. Much of life as we know it is disappearing at a rate not seen since the dinosaurs went extinct. Many of these extinctions are due to human encroachment. Some of these birds, like the Ivory Billed Woodpecker, simply lost the land where they lived. Others, like the Great Auk and Moa were hunted to extinction.
Sadly, there is no strength in numbers when it comes to human-caused extinctions. Eskimo Curlews may have numbered in the hundreds of thousands a century ago. It is thought that there were about 5 billion Passenger Pigeons when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. The last Passenger Pigeon ever died in a Cincinnati zoo, in 1914.
If you will look to your right, you can see the remains of mammals that went extinct under more mysterious circumstances.
These bones are from the Cenozoic era- All the time since the dinosaurs went extinct. Without giant reptiles to dominate the landscape, mammals had a chance to undergo rapid diversification.Wall of Mammals from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
The birds behind you represent a startling trend. Much of life as we know it is disappearing at a rate not seen since the dinosaurs went extinct. Many of these extinctions are due to human encroachment. Some of these birds, like the Ivory Billed Woodpecker, simply lost the land where they lived. Others, like the Great Auk and Moa were hunted to extinction.
Sadly, there is no strength in numbers when it comes to human-caused extinctions. Eskimo Curlews may have numbered in the hundreds of thousands a century ago. It is thought that there were about 5 billion Passenger Pigeons when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. The last Passenger Pigeon ever died in a Cincinnati zoo, in 1914.
If you will look to your right, you can see the remains of mammals that went extinct under more mysterious circumstances.
Ice Age America
These fossils are representative of some of the mammals that roamed North America just over 10,000 years ago, during the last ice age.
You may notice that the Mammoth, Mastodon, Cave Bear, Megaloceros, and Dire Wolf look pretty similar to some present day animals. Why did these ones die out while their cousins are still around?
Sometimes it has to do with food availability. Larger animals need more food to live, and the introduction of humans may have cramped the ability to get nutrients. Sometimes it has to do with adaptability. Maybe these creatures couldn't deal with humans arriving and the ice age ending at the same time. Some researchers say other causes, like new diseases or a natural disaster caused these animal's extinction. Finding answers for these questions is all part of a paleontologist's job.
Ice Age America from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
You may notice that the Mammoth, Mastodon, Cave Bear, Megaloceros, and Dire Wolf look pretty similar to some present day animals. Why did these ones die out while their cousins are still around?
Sometimes it has to do with food availability. Larger animals need more food to live, and the introduction of humans may have cramped the ability to get nutrients. Sometimes it has to do with adaptability. Maybe these creatures couldn't deal with humans arriving and the ice age ending at the same time. Some researchers say other causes, like new diseases or a natural disaster caused these animal's extinction. Finding answers for these questions is all part of a paleontologist's job.
Tuesday, May 4, 2010
Megaloceros
The first part of this exhibit will focus on the giant deer, Megaloceros.
Sexual selection is a tough gambit. The famous example of walking the line between females and food is the Peacock. The male's tail is a Peahen magnet, with a large, full tail advertising good genes. It is also a target and a hindrance. A tiger looking for a meal could easily spot a peacock's tail, and it's unlikely that a big bunch of tailfeathers would make it possible to escape. The selection for tailfeathers goes between two variables: big enough to attract females, light enough to escape predation.
Megaloceros from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Sexual selection is a tough gambit. The famous example of walking the line between females and food is the Peacock. The male's tail is a Peahen magnet, with a large, full tail advertising good genes. It is also a target and a hindrance. A tiger looking for a meal could easily spot a peacock's tail, and it's unlikely that a big bunch of tailfeathers would make it possible to escape. The selection for tailfeathers goes between two variables: big enough to attract females, light enough to escape predation.
Smilodon
The phrase "dynamic megafauna" refers to large animals that are able to capture the public's imagination. If any of these creatures fit the phrase, it would be Smilodon.
Fossils of Smilodon, as well as the Dire Wolf next to it, have been found in the La Brea tar pits, preserved for thousands of years. It's thought that large herbivores would come to the pits to drink, become stuck, and attract predators while bleating for help. Predators looking for an easy meal would end up in the same situation.
For the next part of the tour, please concentrate on the drawers behind you, closest to the entrance.
Smilodon from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Fossils of Smilodon, as well as the Dire Wolf next to it, have been found in the La Brea tar pits, preserved for thousands of years. It's thought that large herbivores would come to the pits to drink, become stuck, and attract predators while bleating for help. Predators looking for an easy meal would end up in the same situation.
For the next part of the tour, please concentrate on the drawers behind you, closest to the entrance.
Fishes
A Vertebrate, in simplest terms, is an animal with a backbone. These drawers house the history of the vertebrates.
The story of vertebrates starts 545 million years ago. It can be a little hard to get your head around that number. 545 million seconds is about seventeen and a quarter years.
The story of vertebrate life starts here, with creatures called jawless fish.
Most of these fish have been extinct for millions of years. The Placoderms went extinct in the late Devonian period, in part of a larger mass extinction. Acanthodians lasted a little longer, disappearing in the Permian extinction event.
The story of vertebrates starts 545 million years ago. It can be a little hard to get your head around that number. 545 million seconds is about seventeen and a quarter years.
The story of vertebrate life starts here, with creatures called jawless fish.
The Fishes from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Most of these fish have been extinct for millions of years. The Placoderms went extinct in the late Devonian period, in part of a larger mass extinction. Acanthodians lasted a little longer, disappearing in the Permian extinction event.
South American Mammals
To the right of the fish drawers, you can look at some of the animals that used to roam prehistoric South America.
Competition from invasive species puts a huge amount of pressure on creatures already inhabiting the area. Food and niches that once belonged to only one set of animals are given to the fittest. An analogous scenario happened in Australia when humans made it over about 40,000 years ago. Today, creatures like Zebra Mussels, Walking Catfish, Kudzu, and Cane Toads cause ecological headaches around the world.
That's not to say that the land bridge closing was all bad for South American animals. Animals like sloths, armadillos, and opossums are still around today. Giant Sloths made it up North, and only went extinct about 14,000 years ago. Fossils of the ostrich sized Terror Birds have been found in Florida and Texas. The phrase "survival of the fittest" was the obvious truism for the American Interchange.
South American Mammals from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Competition from invasive species puts a huge amount of pressure on creatures already inhabiting the area. Food and niches that once belonged to only one set of animals are given to the fittest. An analogous scenario happened in Australia when humans made it over about 40,000 years ago. Today, creatures like Zebra Mussels, Walking Catfish, Kudzu, and Cane Toads cause ecological headaches around the world.
That's not to say that the land bridge closing was all bad for South American animals. Animals like sloths, armadillos, and opossums are still around today. Giant Sloths made it up North, and only went extinct about 14,000 years ago. Fossils of the ostrich sized Terror Birds have been found in Florida and Texas. The phrase "survival of the fittest" was the obvious truism for the American Interchange.
Amphibians
The next section of drawers contain the earliest pioneers on dry land.
Amphibian means "two life" in reference to the larval and adult stages. If you look to the drawers to your right, you will see that land's latter arrivals would have a different way of managing early life.
Amphibians from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Amphibian means "two life" in reference to the larval and adult stages. If you look to the drawers to your right, you will see that land's latter arrivals would have a different way of managing early life.
Amniotes
Amphibians were not the last word in tetrapods. Luckily for all vertebrates that enjoy a fully terrestrial lifestyle, a new type of animal walked onto the scene, with a very important development in tow.
Professor Richmond says it's a very common misconception that reptiles "evolved from some kind of salamander that suddenly grew claws." Instead, the last common ancestor to reptiles and amphibians was, "A tetrapod, yes, but still very, very fishlike."
As we prepare to leave the first floor, take a look at the exhibit behind you. These skeletons were collected by geology students from Amherst College in the early parts of the 20th century. Notice the vast differences in how these animals were preserved.
A picture perfect skeleton like this camel is a paleontologist's dream.
The jigsaw puzzle of Oreodonts is the reality. Sometimes it's a wonder that bones get preserved at all. Scavengers, weather, and rot dispose of most skeletons before they become fossilized. Any skeleton, even a jumbled one, is a diamond in the rough.
Now, it's time to go down the stairs next to you and enter a lost world.
Amniotes from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Professor Richmond says it's a very common misconception that reptiles "evolved from some kind of salamander that suddenly grew claws." Instead, the last common ancestor to reptiles and amphibians was, "A tetrapod, yes, but still very, very fishlike."
As we prepare to leave the first floor, take a look at the exhibit behind you. These skeletons were collected by geology students from Amherst College in the early parts of the 20th century. Notice the vast differences in how these animals were preserved.
A picture perfect skeleton like this camel is a paleontologist's dream.
The jigsaw puzzle of Oreodonts is the reality. Sometimes it's a wonder that bones get preserved at all. Scavengers, weather, and rot dispose of most skeletons before they become fossilized. Any skeleton, even a jumbled one, is a diamond in the rough.
Now, it's time to go down the stairs next to you and enter a lost world.
Dinosaur Diets
As you walk down the stairs, you will enter the age of the dinosaurs- the Mesozoic era.
Dinosaurs have captivated the public's attention since the middle of the 19th century. Even when the idea that giant reptiles could have walked around the earth before us went into vogue, some misconceptions had to be cleared up. Early paleontologists thought that dinosaurs were like bigger versions of reptiles today, slow moving, cold blooded behemoths.
These interpretations lead to some awkward models on dinosaur behavior. Paleontologists originally thought that dinosaurs dragged their tails and walked on splayed legs like lizards. Early drawings had "Brontosaurus" walking with its legs out to the side, belly dragging on the ground. Models of Tyrannosaurus had the beast standing upright, using its tail like a tripod.
As more research was put into dinosaurs, many of these mistakes were cleared up. As evidence that dinosaurs were related to birds became more obvious, paleontologists reconsidered the idea that dinosaurs were cold blooded. Studies of dinosaur tracks showed no evidence of belly or tail dragging.
Today, we know more than ever about these giant reptiles. As new fossils are uncovered, we gain more windows into the past .
Dinosaur Diets from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Dinosaurs have captivated the public's attention since the middle of the 19th century. Even when the idea that giant reptiles could have walked around the earth before us went into vogue, some misconceptions had to be cleared up. Early paleontologists thought that dinosaurs were like bigger versions of reptiles today, slow moving, cold blooded behemoths.
These interpretations lead to some awkward models on dinosaur behavior. Paleontologists originally thought that dinosaurs dragged their tails and walked on splayed legs like lizards. Early drawings had "Brontosaurus" walking with its legs out to the side, belly dragging on the ground. Models of Tyrannosaurus had the beast standing upright, using its tail like a tripod.
As more research was put into dinosaurs, many of these mistakes were cleared up. As evidence that dinosaurs were related to birds became more obvious, paleontologists reconsidered the idea that dinosaurs were cold blooded. Studies of dinosaur tracks showed no evidence of belly or tail dragging.
Today, we know more than ever about these giant reptiles. As new fossils are uncovered, we gain more windows into the past .
Aquatic Reptiles
The time when dinosaurs ruled the earth, the Mesozoic, lasted for 185 million years. That does not mean that dinosaurs were the only game in town.
If you will look to the left of the dinosaur exhibit, you can see reptiles that took to the water.
Please direct yourself to the other portion of the basement, where you can see the footprint collection.
If you will look to the left of the dinosaur exhibit, you can see reptiles that took to the water.Aquatic Reptiles from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Please direct yourself to the other portion of the basement, where you can see the footprint collection.
Dinosaur Footprints
The Mesozoic was an interesting time in local geology as well.
Edward Hitchcock, the third president of Amherst College and a notable geologist, spent much time going over these footprints. In his correspondence to colleagues in Europe, he remarked that the Holyoke range must have once been overran by giant birds. Time would prove these remarks to be prescient.
These tracks can tell us what kind of dinosaurs lived here, how the dinosaurs walked, and even what the weather the dinosaurs were experiencing. In the far corner of this exhibit, you can see fossilized drop marks left by rain.
It's time to leave the age of the dinosaurs. Please go up to the second floor and start by going to the far left, to the second set of drawers.
Dinosaur Footprints from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Edward Hitchcock, the third president of Amherst College and a notable geologist, spent much time going over these footprints. In his correspondence to colleagues in Europe, he remarked that the Holyoke range must have once been overran by giant birds. Time would prove these remarks to be prescient.
These tracks can tell us what kind of dinosaurs lived here, how the dinosaurs walked, and even what the weather the dinosaurs were experiencing. In the far corner of this exhibit, you can see fossilized drop marks left by rain.
It's time to leave the age of the dinosaurs. Please go up to the second floor and start by going to the far left, to the second set of drawers.
Trace Fossils
Our first stop on the second floor is the section of drawers containing trace fossils.
Trace Fossils from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Please continue opening the drawers to your right.
Fossilization
There are an incredibly immense number of ways that a specimen can get fossilized.
The most commonly preserved fossils out there are teeth. Teeth are pretty durable objects due to their enamel coating.
Prior to the Renaissance, it was commonly thought that fossilized shark teeth were the petrified tongues of dragons. In 1666, Danish Geologist and Anatomist Nicolas Steno figured out what was really going on with these pointy rocks after a detailed study of a shark's head.
Fossilization from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
The most commonly preserved fossils out there are teeth. Teeth are pretty durable objects due to their enamel coating.
Prior to the Renaissance, it was commonly thought that fossilized shark teeth were the petrified tongues of dragons. In 1666, Danish Geologist and Anatomist Nicolas Steno figured out what was really going on with these pointy rocks after a detailed study of a shark's head.
Evolutionary Milestones
Turning to the glass case next to us, we can see fossils of all the stunning places evolution has taken life.
Evolutionary Milestones from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Human Evolution
We can't talk about amazing milestones in evolution without acknowledging the skulls behind us.
Out of all the species this world has ever contained, we are the ones that stand out as the smartest, most adaptable, and most dangerous. How did we get this way? What evidence do we have?
It's worth noting that human evolution is an especially contentious field of debate in science. There's always a new piece of evidence to be found, a new strategy to be considered. If you would like to see an in depth (if somewhat fanciful) recreation of the paths human evolution may have taken before getting to where we are today, I would suggest looking into the BBC production Walking With Cavemen
If you will please turn back to the drawers, we can view the ways ancient environments can impact us today.
Out of all the species this world has ever contained, we are the ones that stand out as the smartest, most adaptable, and most dangerous. How did we get this way? What evidence do we have?
Human Evolution from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
It's worth noting that human evolution is an especially contentious field of debate in science. There's always a new piece of evidence to be found, a new strategy to be considered. If you would like to see an in depth (if somewhat fanciful) recreation of the paths human evolution may have taken before getting to where we are today, I would suggest looking into the BBC production Walking With Cavemen
If you will please turn back to the drawers, we can view the ways ancient environments can impact us today.
Fossil Environments
Turning back to the drawers, we can look at past worlds through fossil environments.
Fossil Environments from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Invertebrates
The Rudist bivalves are an excellent jumping off point of invertebrates in general.
Invertebrates, or animals without backbones, represent most life on Earth, yet often don't make science headlines. For instance, beetles may make up 25 percent of life on Earth, but no one thinks very much of them.
These animals are often as complex as we like to think we are, and they have been around for much, much longer.
Please continue to the index fossil grouping to your right.
Invertebrates from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Invertebrates, or animals without backbones, represent most life on Earth, yet often don't make science headlines. For instance, beetles may make up 25 percent of life on Earth, but no one thinks very much of them.
These animals are often as complex as we like to think we are, and they have been around for much, much longer.
Please continue to the index fossil grouping to your right.
Index Fossils
We're finishing this wall of drawers with some well known index fossils.
Now, If you'll turn around, you can go through a crash course of the Pioneer Valley's history.
Index Fossils from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Now, If you'll turn around, you can go through a crash course of the Pioneer Valley's history.
History of the Connecticut River Valley
Giving a tour can be a tough job, especially when you need to cover about 500 million years. This is the abbreviated reason of why this Museum's hometown looks just so today.
There is just so much history behind the valley that it can be tough to know what to put in a two minute video. Other than the Holyoke range footprints, other cool geological features of the valley include gravel pits visible off of route 91 in Sunderland (various bits of ground down rock were left there by the glaciers) and various rock formations.
Some formations, like conglomerate (larger hunks of rock stuck in smaller grained rock matrix) are what was left behind by alluvial fans, the term for rocks piled up by the erosion of mountains. These are what was left behind by the massive wasting of the ancient Appalachians.
Basalt formations found in the valley are leftovers from when the valley rifted. Lava from underground poured out of these rifts in sheets. You can see geological action like this in the East African Rift Valley today.
If you come across rock around Amherst that looks like it was scratched by something, chances are it came into contact with a glacier sometime in the past 2.5 million years. it's impossible to imagine how big these glaciers were. Think about the UMass library, which is visible from two towns over.
Now, imagine there were an extra seven libraries stacked on top of that. You're reaching the height of an ice age glacier.
These glaciers pushed so much junk forward, the termination points of the glaciers are still visible today- as Long Island and Cape Cod.
My favorite story that I couldn't include in the video was a Native American myth told to me by Ed Belt, a former professor at Amherst College. As it turns out, Mount Sugarloaf, in South Deerfield, was once a trickster figure who went by the name of Little Beaver.
Little Beaver lived in what was once lake Hitchcock. One day, Little Beaver played a trick on a god that didn't have a developed sense of humor. The god drained Little Beaver's home, and turned him into stone to add insult to injury. This could be how Native Americans explained how Lake Hitchcock disappeared at the end of the last ice age.
If you will now walk through the door in between the drawers, please take a left, and start with the Phosphates and Vanadates exhibit.
There is just so much history behind the valley that it can be tough to know what to put in a two minute video. Other than the Holyoke range footprints, other cool geological features of the valley include gravel pits visible off of route 91 in Sunderland (various bits of ground down rock were left there by the glaciers) and various rock formations.
History of the Connecticut River Valley from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Some formations, like conglomerate (larger hunks of rock stuck in smaller grained rock matrix) are what was left behind by alluvial fans, the term for rocks piled up by the erosion of mountains. These are what was left behind by the massive wasting of the ancient Appalachians.
Basalt formations found in the valley are leftovers from when the valley rifted. Lava from underground poured out of these rifts in sheets. You can see geological action like this in the East African Rift Valley today.
If you come across rock around Amherst that looks like it was scratched by something, chances are it came into contact with a glacier sometime in the past 2.5 million years. it's impossible to imagine how big these glaciers were. Think about the UMass library, which is visible from two towns over.
Now, imagine there were an extra seven libraries stacked on top of that. You're reaching the height of an ice age glacier. These glaciers pushed so much junk forward, the termination points of the glaciers are still visible today- as Long Island and Cape Cod.
My favorite story that I couldn't include in the video was a Native American myth told to me by Ed Belt, a former professor at Amherst College. As it turns out, Mount Sugarloaf, in South Deerfield, was once a trickster figure who went by the name of Little Beaver.
Little Beaver lived in what was once lake Hitchcock. One day, Little Beaver played a trick on a god that didn't have a developed sense of humor. The god drained Little Beaver's home, and turned him into stone to add insult to injury. This could be how Native Americans explained how Lake Hitchcock disappeared at the end of the last ice age.
If you will now walk through the door in between the drawers, please take a left, and start with the Phosphates and Vanadates exhibit.
Phosphates and Vanadates
Welcome to the first stop on the second floor mineral collection.
Phosphates and Vanadates contain either a phosphorus or vanadium atom, plus four oxygen atoms.
My favorite phosphate here is Lazurite, which helps to form Lapis lazuli, a gemstone. It has been mined for the past six thousand years. Although it originally came from Afghanistan, this mineral has been found in ancient burial sites as far away as Egypt. This mineral was a backbone for the earliest trade routes. How cool is that?
Let's move on to the right, where we find Arsenates, Tungstates, and Molybdates.
Phosphates and Vanadates contain either a phosphorus or vanadium atom, plus four oxygen atoms.
Phosphates and Vanadates from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
My favorite phosphate here is Lazurite, which helps to form Lapis lazuli, a gemstone. It has been mined for the past six thousand years. Although it originally came from Afghanistan, this mineral has been found in ancient burial sites as far away as Egypt. This mineral was a backbone for the earliest trade routes. How cool is that?
Let's move on to the right, where we find Arsenates, Tungstates, and Molybdates.
Arsenates, Tungstates, Molybdates
This grouping of minerals each contain an arsenic, tungsten, or molybdenum atom, plus four oxygen atoms.
I learned about the dangers of Arsenates from UMass Associate Professor of Natural Resources Conservation Timothy Randhir, who is working on ways to halt arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh. Because Bangladesh is desperately poor, there isn't the necessary infrastructure to stop poisoning at the source. Instead, a way must be found to filter arsenic out of the water before it is consumed.
Moving on, we see the sulfate exhibit.
Arsenates, Tungstates, and Molybdates from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
I learned about the dangers of Arsenates from UMass Associate Professor of Natural Resources Conservation Timothy Randhir, who is working on ways to halt arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh. Because Bangladesh is desperately poor, there isn't the necessary infrastructure to stop poisoning at the source. Instead, a way must be found to filter arsenic out of the water before it is consumed.
Moving on, we see the sulfate exhibit.
Sulfates
The sulfate molecule is one sulfur atom bonded with four oxygen atoms, with a net charge of negative two. Sulfates can take many, many forms.
The "Desert Roses" are crystal formations of gypsum or barite, with bits of sand thrown in the mix. They grow in arid conditions,near shallow, salty lake beds.
Next on the list, Borates.
Sulfates from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
The "Desert Roses" are crystal formations of gypsum or barite, with bits of sand thrown in the mix. They grow in arid conditions,near shallow, salty lake beds.
Next on the list, Borates.
Borates
This is the Borate collection. These minerals gain their name from the borate oxoanion. For non-chemists, that's a boron atom with three oxygen atoms, with a charge of negative three.
There you go- a chemical compound that's a staple for any janitor's closet. Borax also has a bunch of other uses; from mining, to biochemical experiments, to fire retardants. To your right, you can see the next exhibit, Sedimentary Structures.
Borates from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
There you go- a chemical compound that's a staple for any janitor's closet. Borax also has a bunch of other uses; from mining, to biochemical experiments, to fire retardants. To your right, you can see the next exhibit, Sedimentary Structures.
Sedimentary Structures
Here, we see some sedimentary structures.
These are tiny particles of mud, sand, and clay (or in the case of limestone, bodies of carbonate containing animals like mollusks and corals)that covered the ground, then got compacted and buried. Over the scale of thousands of years, these materials became rock.
Mudstone is also an excellent preservation environment for fossils. Most types of organic matter tend to decay when oxygen is introduced. An anoxic environment, like several feet of mud, will keep oxygen consuming bacteria from using the organic matter as food.
Sandstone, which has larger particles, tends to be a poor preserver. Of course, there are some exceptions.
Next, we go on to the final exhibit of our tour.
These are tiny particles of mud, sand, and clay (or in the case of limestone, bodies of carbonate containing animals like mollusks and corals)that covered the ground, then got compacted and buried. Over the scale of thousands of years, these materials became rock.
Sedimentary Structures from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
Mudstone is also an excellent preservation environment for fossils. Most types of organic matter tend to decay when oxygen is introduced. An anoxic environment, like several feet of mud, will keep oxygen consuming bacteria from using the organic matter as food.
Sandstone, which has larger particles, tends to be a poor preserver. Of course, there are some exceptions.
Next, we go on to the final exhibit of our tour.
Carbonates and Halides
The last stop on our tour is the Carbonate and Halide exhibit.
Carbonates are minerals that have a Carbonate molecule (one carbon atom, three oxygens) attached.
Carbonates mostly come from geological means, but they can also originate from animals. Calcium carbonate forms the shells of mollusks like clams and oysters, and the skeletons of corals.
A halide is a mineral with a negatively charge Florine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, or Astatine atom. These five atoms form the halogen group.
There you have it. These minerals are not just part of an exotic collection- indeed, one of them is the most commonly used mineral in the history of humanity. The Amherst College Natural History Museum may seem like a collection of relics, but you only need to dig a little deeper to find natural history's impact on today.
I strongly encourage everyone who reads this blog to visit the museum; to learn about the past- and to take a closer look about how it affects every one of us. Thank you for reading this,
Ted Rogers
Carbonates are minerals that have a Carbonate molecule (one carbon atom, three oxygens) attached.
Carbonates mostly come from geological means, but they can also originate from animals. Calcium carbonate forms the shells of mollusks like clams and oysters, and the skeletons of corals.
A halide is a mineral with a negatively charge Florine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, or Astatine atom. These five atoms form the halogen group.
Halides from Ted Rogers on Vimeo.
There you have it. These minerals are not just part of an exotic collection- indeed, one of them is the most commonly used mineral in the history of humanity. The Amherst College Natural History Museum may seem like a collection of relics, but you only need to dig a little deeper to find natural history's impact on today.
I strongly encourage everyone who reads this blog to visit the museum; to learn about the past- and to take a closer look about how it affects every one of us. Thank you for reading this,
Ted Rogers
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